Citizen Engagement

Three means of citizen engagement with the state in a democratic society includes: first through the ballot box as part of the electoral process, second as active citizens enrolled in civic participation at a local scale, third through involvement in social engagements. Each of these activities is it self a result of particular rights enjoyed by citizens in a democratic context – the right to vote, the right to participate in government and the right to participate in social, religious, economic and cultural activities. The difference between de jure and de facto citizenship frequently has a spatial manifestation – on finding that their rights are restricted in particular often public spaces, excluded groups create more private, marginal, spaces in which proper machineries can be achieved and the enforcement agencies of the state or of an intolerant minorities may be compromised and be negotiated.

International law

During 1980s international law was presented as a topic in universities while only few students of the whole attending the lectures, would ever come across to work in the field in real life. International law was taught across the world, to govern relations between states at the international level with little, if any impact on citizens or on local issues. Before the second WWar international rules had been minimal in context and addressed only a small number of areas of human activities.

Since 1990s public perceptions of international law have been transformed. At some point in the 90s these arcane rules moved out of the corridors of foreign ministries and into the boardrooms of business, lobbying newsletters of NGOs, and the front pages of our newspapers. International law went public. Against the back ground of changes during 80s, and 90s several factors transformed perceptions about the function and nature of international law. First factor is globalization a concept caught on during 1990s, premised on rule based system of international, and international economic relations in particular.