Oxfam Water Supply Scheme for Emergencies

Oxfam Water Supply Scheme for Emergencies
The equipment is part of several packages devised by the Oxfam Public Health Engineering Team to help provide a reliable water supply for populations affected by conflict or natural disaster. The equipment is designed to be used with any or all of the following Oxfam water equipment: Water Storage equipment, Water Coagulation and Disinfection equipment, Water Pumping equipment, Water Distribution equipment, Well Digging equipment, and Water Testing Kit. All are designed using available, easily transported equipment which is simple, rapidly assembled, and fully self-contained, to provide an adequate, safe water supply at moderate cost. The principles used in these packages may often be useful in long-term development projects. The Oxfam equipment packages, which consist of “Oxfam” tanks (steel sheets, rubber liners), diesel water pumps, 3” PVC pipes etc, have been used successfully in the last two decades in often harsh environments, ranging from tropical to temperate climatic areas. Although this equipment is designed for emergencies, if installed and protected adequately it can give many years of useful service, though some up-grading works will be necessary to prolong its life. This equipment can be dismantled and reused elsewhere. However, these Oxfam equipment packages, while being simple to erect over a period of days, yet durable enough to last several years, do not lend themselves to very rapid deployment in a few hours. Increasingly, the nature of work which Oxfam has been called on to undertake has required equipment that can be rapidly deployed then dismantled and moved to other locations. This has led to the development of the so called “rapid response kits” since the mid-1990s. This type of equipment is seen as a necessary complement to the original Oxfam equipment and is best used to provide a start up package in the absence of a detailed assessment and where affected populations are likely to be highly mobile. The relatively higher equipment costs and lack of suitability for anything other than short term water supply, means that the deployment of the “rapid response kits” should be used only where appropriate.

Wherever possible, water supplies in emergency conditions should be obtained from underground sources by exploitation of springs, tubewells, or dug wells. No filtration will then be needed. However, if sources are not available or cannot be developed, the use of surface water from streams, rivers, lakes or ponds becomes necessary.
Usually these surface sources are polluted. The level of faecal contamination can be measured by use of the Oxfam/Delagua Water Test Kit (see Section C). Where a serious level of faecal pollution exists, it is essential firstly to try to reduce the cause of contamination, and secondly to treat the water to make it suitable for human consumption. The Filtration equipment provides a simple, long-term physical and biological treatment system that requires no chemicals (except small amounts of chlorine required during filter cleaning) and needs only simple regular maintenance.
The filtration equipment will enable a considerable improvement to be made in the quality of a polluted water source. However, it is essential that a suitable intake be constructed at the source to minimise the concentration of suspended solids in the water before it enters the treatment system.

The well rings and pipes required for this are not included in these kits. The filtration equipment uses the simplest form of water treatment, usually requiring no chemicals and relying on gravity to provide the flow through the system. It consists of settlement, roughing filtration and slow sand filtration. Water storage tanks for filters are not included in the slow sand or roughing filter kits. These should be ordered separately and allowance made for treated water storage too. If necessary, additional treatment of the water may be provided by chlorination. The treatment process and its effectiveness can be monitored by use of the Water Test Kit. Care is needed in the operation of this equipment, and a basic understanding of the physical and biological processes is useful in order to get the most out of it.

Although some outline design data is provided to give guidance in designing and setting up a suitable filtration system, it is very important to undertake basic water quality assessments. If the source is a river or stream, the quality will certainly vary from season to season and therefore measurements over a longer period of time will be necessary to determine the treatment requirements. However, given the time required to build filtration treatment plants (perhaps 2-3 weeks because of collecting, cleaning and placing media), this equipment would generally be appropriate for use in the post-emergency phase (after 6-12 months). Measurements can be taken during this perod. For more detailed information on designing and operating a plant refer to “Surface Water Treatment by Roughing Filters” by Weglin.

SPHERE recommends a figure of 15 litres per person per day for water supply. This figure is based upon water requirements for drinking and food preparation, which require higher quality water, as well as water needed for clothes washing and bathing. Where nearby sources of water such as streams and rivers are available and the safe use of these for washing clothes and bathing can be managed, it may be appropriate and necessary to initially size the treatment system on a figure of 10 litres/person/day (as this manual assumes). This would provide the water required for food preparation and drinking (i.e. a minimum of 5 litres/person/day) while allowing for subsequent increased demand, perhaps due to population expansion. Given the time and effort required to set up such water treatment systems, it is appropriate to ensure there is ample capacity in the system.

Oxfam uses two basic types of filtration process for treatment of physically and microbiologically contaminated (surface) water:

1. Water (surface) with high physical contamination (which often has high microbiological contamination too), needs to be treated using roughing filters prior to being treated by slow sand filters. The primary function of roughing filters is to reduce physical contamination – although they do also have a limited ability to reduce microbiological contamination.
2. Water (surface) with low physical contamination (suspended solids) but with high microbiological contamination can be treated using slow sand filters alone. The primary function of slow sand filters is to eliminate microbiological contamination
– they have limited ability to cope with high levels of physical contamination.
Note: physical contamination is caused by suspended solids, approximate estimates of which are made by measuring turbidity.

Source: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/emergencies/how_we_work
/downloads/water_filtration_manual.pdf


Water Issues

The world will need 55 percent more food by 2030. This translates into an increasing demand for irrigation, which already claims nearly 70 percent of all freshwater consumed for human use. Recent estimates indicate that 1.1 billion people still do not have access to an adequate supply of drinking water and some 2.6 billion do not have access to basic sanitation. These people are among the world’s poorest. The second UN World Water Development Report points out that the hydrological cycle, upon which life depends, needs a healthy environment to function. Evidence indicates that the diversity of freshwater species and ecosystems is deteriorating rapidly, often faster than terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Ninety percent of natural disasters are water-related events, and they are on the increase. Many are the result of poor land use. A resistant varieties of crops for irrigated and dryland areas to increase water use efficiency and water productivity. Agricultural products are expected to increase from 60 million tons in 2001 to 90 million tons by 2004.


Challenges in the 21st century by 2020

Iran's population is estimated to reach 100 million. However total agricultural production is expected to be 200 million tons, of which 189 million tons will be harvested from irrigated crops. Total water supply for agriculture will be about 100 bcm. This means that by the year 2020, water productivity should reach 1.9 kg/m3.
To fulfill this expectation, agricultural commodities (wheat, barley, maize, oil crops) will be the main focus for improvements. With opportunities for expanding areas under cultivation almost exhausted, additional food production will have to be accomplished mainly through increasing productivity. Intensive use of water, fertilizers, and other agricultural inputs for crop production at present are the major cause of problems in soil and groundwater salinization, nutrient imbalances, incidence of new pests, and diseases, and environmental degradation.

Rising biotic pressure, lack of a suitable soil management system, and lack of inputs to realize optimum potential of land appear to threaten sustainability of agriculture. Thus, the consequences are degraded lands, loss of biodiversity, and soil.

Erosion, deforestation, and overall environmental pollution, all of which result in lowered productivity. For efficient and sustainable agriculture it will be essential to shift from commodity centered approach to a farming systems approach, which calls for multidisciplinary efforts.

This will require emphases on efficiency, sustainability, post harvest management, mechanization, marketing, and trade. Such an approach will also require forging links withal who are concerned at the regional, national, and international levels.

With implementation of these new approaches, water productivity should be increased to at least 1.9 kg/m3. this implies that the institutional structure and procedures of water allocation in the agriculture sector should be modified.

This would necessitate emphases on special prioritization, policies, modernization, water use efficiency, and productivity management. To elaborate more on the importance and role of water and to draw the necessary attention for improving water productivity in the future.

The possible increase in water resources is very limited 9.7 and 22 percent after 5 and 22 years, respectively. However, in order for agricultural products from the irrigated land to increase significantly (by 150 and 337 percent by 2005 and 2020, respectively), water productivity 0.7 kg/m3 has to be increased to 1 and 1.9 kg/m3 by 2005 and 2020, respectively.

Objectives and challenges
It is anticipated that agricultural products from irrigated areas will increase from 56 million tons in 2000 to 85million tons in 2005, this would be realized when our after resources can be increased up to a maximum of 10-22 %

Therefore, it is necessary to increase water productivity in agriculture from 0.7 kg/m3 in 2000 to 1.9 kg/m3 by2020. The expected increase in agricultural products basically depends on the country's available water resources. Water scarcity is the most limiting factor in agricultural productivity in Iran. Attention to improvements in water supply and water productivity programs has been the most important and governing policy during the past 22 years.

Under this policy, different rules have been applied and, in addition, different technical infrastructures (executive, research, and consultative) in both public and private sectors have been developed. This attention, in addition to establishment of special laws and regulations, has been considered in the construction of development programs. Among the established laws which can be nominated are the Balanced Distribution of Water law (established in 1983) and the executive instructions of optimization of the agricultural water consumption.


Public Services
The main concern in the concept of good governance is to meet the basic needs of human beings, such as nutrition, health preservation, decent housing, and education each of which has a corresponding human right. Human beings are the main concern for sustainable development that highlights the right to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. Poverty is recognized as a threat to sustainable development and the right to life. The role of local communities has been particularly highlighted in their right to promote sustainable development and to participate in environmental management and development.

Local governments are the closest public sector institution with respect to the community to prioritize and carry out public projects. The local arena, furthermore, has a particular advantage and capacity to identify and understand local problems, and consequently is the most appropriate level at which to foster democratic mechanisms which is approved by informed and accountable authorities. Participation guarantees a more efficient and more rational functioning of local public activities and use of resources. People’s engagement proposes a change in the dynamics between government and the governed. The community is hence transformed into a promoter of ideas and an active actor in the public realm. The government is hence transformed into ‘expert advisor’ and ‘technical implementer’ of publicly agreed upon works.
People’s participation in public projects is not a homogenous process, but has many different shapes and grades subject to local administration, and to society and government specific circumstances and fabrics. It is important that the promoter of participation understand thoroughly the advantages and disadvantages that these modalities may imply, since each of them will generate different expectations by the actors. Participation hence, implies not only negotiation, convergence, and cooperation of interests and actors, but also disagreement and confrontation. It does not entail a mere approval of proposals made by a regional administrator, but genuine involvement of all relevant stakeholders in the process. People’s involvement encourages the design and execution of public policies, better identifying the basic needs of the community and the use of public resources. Such information is essential to the implementation and review of environmentally sound and socially responsible sustainable development.
Participation transforms the nature and perceived value of the public good, contracting the indifference of society toward public matters and developing a sense of belonging and ownership in the community which promotes efficient use of resources and reduce overuse and waste. People’s engagement tends to increase public revenues proportional to the level of increase in perceived value and ownership of the public good, and the subsequent increase in willingness to pay taxes associated to public investments and consequently increases the legitimacy of the State.